Clinical Legal Education in Ghana: A Vision and a Roadmap

I thank profoundly, Prof. Raymond Atuguba, former Dean of the University of Ghana School of Law for his tremendous support and encouragement in my conception of the University of Ghana School of Law, (UGSoL) Agric Justice Clinic Model, (2023) as a pedagogical tool for academic credit, and his tireless efforts towards the realization of its goals. Furthermore, I thank extremely, Prof. Lucie White of Harvard University for the opportunity to participate in and understudy her clinical class and for the inspiration, mentorship and guidance that not only crystalized the UGSoL Agric Justice Clinic, (2023) Model, but that also saw it successfully operationalized. In addition, I acknowledge the student participants in both the first MSMEs Justice Clinic and the Agric Justice Clinic and the brilliance that they brought to these clinics.

French version : Enseignement clinique du droit au Ghana : une vision et une feuille de route

A law clinic may be defined as “a learning environment where students identify, research and apply knowledge in a setting which replicates, at least in part, the world where it is practiced”, [Kemp, 2016]. There are different types of clinical models. These include In-house; Externships/Placements; Hybrid Clinics; Simulation-Based Clinics and Street Law Programs, [Le Thi, 2025].

In-house legal clinics, as the name suggests, operate within law schools or law faculties in a structured learning environment, where faculty members play a crucial role in mentoring students. They provide students with opportunities to represent real clients and real-life cases under faculty supervision. The benefits of In-house clinics include contributing to pro bono legal services by assisting underserved populations who may otherwise lack access to justice, [Le Thi, 2025].

Externships or placements on the other hand allow students to work in external legal organizations, including law firms, government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs and public defender offices). Unlike in-house clinics, externships place students in real-world legal environments, where they work under the supervision of practicing attorneys. This model is particularly valuable for students seeking hands-on experience in a specific legal field, as placements can be tailored to individual career interests and goals, [Le Thi, 2025].

Unlike Externships that deal with real life and real clients’ cases, Simulation-based clinics involve role plays in interviewing, counselling, negotiations and mock trials, [Milstein, 2001]. This model provides students with opportunities to test their ability to effectively represent a client or test their problem-solving skills by utilizing simulated case scenarios rather than real or direct client representation. Moot courts are an example of this model, as they allow students to apply learned skills in research, drafting, mediation and legal argumentation, etc. in simulated cases.

Street law programs on the other hand focus on legal education and community engagement rather than direct client representation. In this model, law students educate the public about their legal rights and responsibilities, [Maisel, 2025]. This model is particularly impactful in promoting legal awareness among marginalized communities, school students, and non-law professionals. It allows students to develop skills in public speaking, legal interpretation, and policy advocacy, making them better equipped for careers in human rights law, public interest law, and legislative advocacy, [Le Thi, 2025].

Hybrid clinics combine elements of more than one of the above models. This model has been found to provide students with skills of flexibility and adaptability not only in learning the law but also in how it functions in various environments, whether in a courtroom, legal aid camp, or a particular community or subject area, [Singh and Raj, 2025].

As an academic pedagogy, clinical legal education falls within the broader spectrum of what are often referred to as experiential or active pedagogies, [Wilson, Richard J, 2017] that is, methods of academic instruction and student learning that include something more than classroom delivery of lectures by an instructor or students simply discussing imaginary cases or students merely briefing cases according to IRAC – issue, rule, application and conclusion. In clinical legal education, students are exposed to real or realistic legal issues and problems (Grimes and Gibbons, 2016), where they are required to identify, research and apply knowledge in real life circumstances, real life issues and real people. Clinical legal education therefore presents students not only with unique opportunities to anticipate and engage in the full spectrum of the skills, ethics, and values of the legal professional, [Wilson, Richard J, 2017], but it also equips them to reflect more deeply about the role of the law and the legal profession in society, the quality of justice delivery in their societies, issues surrounding access to justice and potential areas requiring law reform or new perspectives.

Like many transformational concepts, it is uncertain when or where clinical legal education was first employed. There is however strong evidence that clinics have their origins in Denmark, deep in the nineteenth century and as part of the civil or Roman law tradition of continental Europe and its colonies, [Wilson, Richard J, 2017]. Clinical legal methods have since been entrenched in many jurisdictions including in the United States, Europe, Asia and Africa. In Ghana, although law clinics as projects within academic law faculties have a relatively dated history, clinical legal education as a pedagogical tool for academic credit is a recent thing – it was first introduced in the University of Ghana School of Law in 2023, (MSME Justice and Agricultural Justice clinics) by the author herein. It is however gaining grounds rapidly, as recent legal reforms policy proposes to make it part of the legal curricula for law faculties and legal schools throughout the country, [Legalbrief Africa, 2025]. While the proposals for reforms are welcome, earlier questions such as how clinical legal education could be institutionalized in academic institutions that operate in a legal system constrained by professional regulations that prohibit representation by non-lawyers remain unaddressed. In the case of Ghana, this question has become even more pertinent considering Ghanaian superior courts’ consistent insistence in landmark cases such as the Republic vs. High Court (Fast Track Div.) Accra Exparte: Justin Pwavra Teriwajah¹ and Henry Nuertey Korboe vs. Francis Amosa,² that an annual solicitor’s licence is a sine qua non to one’s ability to represent a client. This clear position effectively disqualifies law students yet to receive a qualifying certificate in law from representing clinic clients in court, thereby limiting the extent to which legal clinics in law schools can include representation of clinic clients. This paper seeks to contribute to bridging this gap in the literature by proposing the author’s model, as an answer to the question of how clinical legal education can be institutionalized in academic institutions that operate in a legal system constrained by professional regulations that prohibit legal representation by non-lawyers.

Background to Clinical Legal Education in Ghana

Ghana’s formal education system offers legal education through three routes: undergraduate program, (that is, Bachelor of Laws, (LLB) program consisting regular LLB and post-graduate LLB programs); post graduate programs, (consisting Master of Laws (LLM), Master of Arts (MA) in Law and doctor of philosophy (PhD) in Law programs); and Professional Law Certificate program, (that is, a qualifying certificate in law to practice as a barrister and solicitor in Ghana). The undergraduate and post graduate programs are offered in institutions of higher learning duly accredited by the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission,³ while the professional Law program is currently offered by only one institution in Ghana: the Ghana School of Law.⁴ To qualify for enrollment into the professional program, one must have an LLB from a duly accredited institution. This paper focuses on undergraduate and post-graduate legal education rather than the professional program, as the professional program is currently undergoing legal and policy reforms that are yet to be finalized.

The academic curricula for the graduate and undergraduate programs involves attending lectures, participating in tutorials, sitting interim and final exams and completing between thirty-six credit hours and forty-two credit hours per year. The total number of years for the regular LLB is four years, that for post-graduate LLB is two years, (Manteaw, 2007), that for LLM and MA in law is one year, while that for PhD in law is four years. The courses of instruction include Criminal Law, Equity and Trusts, Law of the European Union, Torts, Property Law, Public Law, Constitutional and Administrative Law, Human Rights, Ghana Legal System, Law of Contract, Public International Law, Immovable Property Law, Criminal Law, Comparative Law, Natural Resource Law, Law of Taxation among very many others.

Although legal education in Ghana has undergone significant restructuring and development over the years, it is still largely a knowledge-centered education model rather than integrating a skills-oriented model. Most of the subjects offered in the law faculties thus do little to expose law students to the practical challenges of actual legal practice and actual legal access to justice issues in the society (Frimpong, 2021). There have therefore been further proposals for reforms to be made to the legal education curricula in Ghana to provide vigorous practical training programs that not only introduce students to the relevant literature but also enhance the student’s ability to handle practical problems. Manteaw, in his study Legal Education in Africa: What Type of Lawyer Does Africa Need, (2008) suggests clinical legal education complete with experienced full-time instructors as providing the best option to such a vigorous program.

Despite the fact that proposals for clinical legal education to be introduced into the academic curricula were widely considered laudable, there were also skepticism around whether these could be introduced for academic credit considering that Ghanaian law prohibits unqualified persons from practicing law, with the implication that law students may not be permitted to file processes in court or appear in court to represent clients if the clinic so requires, (Frimpong, 2021). This is because the Ghanaian Supreme Court has consistently held that any person, (including lawyers who failed to renew their annual licenses) have no capacity to represent a client including filing any processes on behalf of the client, (Exparte Teriwajah, 2013).⁵ Institutions of higher learning thus largely introduced legal clinics as “projects” in the various law faculties, rather than as a pedagogical tool for academic credit, until 2023 when the author herein introduced clinical legal education as a pedagogical tool for academic credit, (https://law.ug.edu.gh/news/university-ghana-school-law-partners-harvard-law-school-ghana-agricultural-clinic-project).

Some of the legal clinics previously introduced as projects in law faculties in Ghana include the ‘Galamsey project’ organized by the UGSoL 2025 International Human Rights Law class students to call for a declaration of a state of emergency in mining communities which experienced devastating environmental damages as a result of illegal mining activities, (https://sikamantimes.com/galamsey-fight-ugsol-students-urge-declaration-of-state-of-emergency/#google_vignette).⁶ The clinic culminated in a press conference on the theme “The Effects of Galamsey on Human Rights in Ghana”). Another example of a Law clinic project is the University of Cape Coast, (UCC) ‘law clinic’ that was organized by the UCC in collaboration with the Ministry of Inner City and Zongo Development. This clinic sensitized residents on how to access legal advice, (https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/ucc-faculty-of-law-educates-cnity-on-legal-issues/). In addition, there is the Law Clinic and Mooting course administered by the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, (KNUST) Faculty of Law, that is the ‘Moot’/Mock Trials Clinic at (KNUST), which normally includes components on legal research and writing, and oral advocacy, (Frimpong, 2021).  The UGSoL MSME/Agric Justice Clinic model first introduced in 2023 is however markedly different from all the above-mentioned projects and overcomes the anticipated challenge in the light of Exparte Teriwajah, 2013⁷ line of cases discussed above.

The “UGSoL MSME/Agric Justice Clinic model” as a Pedagogical tool for Legal Education for Academic Credit

The UGSoL MSME/Agric Justice Clinic Model, (What it is)

The MSME/Agric Justice clinic is a clinical legal education program that is made up of lecturers and students at the University of Ghana School of Law (the “UGSoL”) and Harvard Law School, (“HLS”). It focuses on improving the well-being of Ghana’s agricultural workers, particularly women, persons with disabilities, minorities, youth, and the most marginalized.  To accomplish this overall goal, the MSME/Agric Justice Clinic seeks to address challenges to the ownership and access to land, decent labor conditions, markets, (both regional and international), infrastructure, banking and credit, and facilitating the creation and expansion of agricultural MSMEs, (that is, micro, small and medium enterprises).

Specifically, the MSME/Agric Justice clinic (the “Clinic”) engages in five clusters of advocacy activity. Students learn through clinical pedagogy by engaging with lecturers in every phase of each activity.  The five advocacy clusters are:

• provide farmers with direct legal support to assist with administrative tasks and direct legal representation, particularly on access to land, banking and credit, and improvement of the working conditions and labor rights of waged and share-cropping farmers;
• engage in policy and legislative advocacy on behalf of farmers, particularly to
  • improve land policies;
  • provide and improve needed infrastructures;
  • improve banking and credit access at commercial banks while increasing credit streams and access to banking for small farmers;
  • improve marketing laws and policies;
  • create a favorable regulatory nexus for the creation of MSMEs;
• engage in political and media advocacy to support farmers in all the project’s five key challenge areas, especially on behalf of farmers living in remote areas, women, minorities, youth, farmers with disabilities and the most marginalized farmers;
• monitor the implementation of such laws and policies, both existing and newly created;
• produce educational materials and provide legal and business training on all laws and policies relevant to farmers’ well-being, including:
  • land laws;
  • law and regulations relevant to farmers’ establishing MSMEs in the agricultural sector;
  • tax laws, best practices, and enforcement, including training for government workers who interact with farm entrepreneurs and process their documents;
  • laws and policies relating to banking and access to credit at commercial banks and other sources.

Why the Clinic is Needed

The challenges to women and youth access to land are as old as the nation Ghana. This is because the challenges include structural problems which have their root in the customary land tenure systems in Ghana. Customary law is recognized as a source of law in Ghana, [the 1992 Constitution, article 11] and most of the land relations in Ghana are determined by customary law, [Anaafo, et al, 2023]. Although Ghana’s Constitution guarantees against discrimination on the grounds of sex, [the 1992 Constitution, article 17], the country has still not discussed whether the customary land tenure, which is based largely on gender in some respects offends the constitutional principles of equality and non-discrimination on the grounds of age and gender.

Under the customary land tenure system, the land is owned and controlled by a stool/skin, Tindana, family/clan or individual, [Azumah and Sendawula, 2023]. Although the customary land tenure system varies throughout Ghana depending on whether the affected community is matrilineal or patrilineal and/or whether it was previously an acephalous society or a centralised society, there are common structural challenges that disadvantage various marginalized groups including, women, young farmers, persons with disabilities, settler farmers and MSMEs. These challenges include the low bargaining power small farmers have vis-a-vis middlemen, gaps in the supply chain that prevent farmers from reaching processors or markets for selling their goods, lack of public infrastructure, and cultural norms regarding women and people with disabilities.

Although Ghana has embarked on various Land Reform Projects, such as improving land registration, institutional capacity building, land dispute resolution and the harmonization of statutory and customary systems governing land, [Obeng-Odoom, 2016], these projects have largely not addressed the structural problems that have profound effects on the livelihoods of small-scale farmers, particularly female farmers, farmers with disabilities, youth, settler farmers and other marginalised groups. A broader structural reform is thus required, and this can be achieved through the MSME/Agric Justice Clinic.

The overall goal of the Clinic is therefore to improve livelihoods for agricultural workers, especially targeted groups, by addressing five key structural challenges namely: increase in waged agricultural labor; lack of agriculture-linked infrastructure; barriers to regional and international marketing; limited access to banking and credit; and hampered access to land, and the Clinic will pursue this goal through five clusters of advocacy activity: (1) direct legal representation; (2) policy research and advocacy; (3) political and media work; (4) monitoring the implementation of laws and policies; and (5) intensive education and training on laws and policies relevant to all of the Clinic’s key challenges.

The Clinic’s Design and Activities

The Clinic is organized into five sub-clinics, one for each key challenge.  Students will choose their focus. Each (sub)-Clinic will choose specific goals to address through advocacy campaigns that combine all five core advocacy activities and more. Each strategy will be clinically taught through student participation in the advocacy. The five key strategies listed above will be enhanced by six advanced strategies when appropriate.  These include:

• ground-level ethnographically styled fact-investigation;
• cause-driven impact litigation;
• use of Human Rights forums and strategies, (domestic, regional, and international);
• partnering with civil society and NGO/CBO groups;
• legislative, executive, and high-level policy research, including convening, law-drafting, Parliamentary advocacy, and more; and
• social movement coalition-building and multi-tactical advocacy.

The five sub-clinics have frequent activities in-common. Publication about the political economy of the structural drivers will be part of the clinic’s core mission.  The students will be fully engaged in this aspect, publishing in domestic and international journals.  The clinic might eventually consider starting its own publication.

Students of UGSoL may opt for the clinic project in place of their dissertation/LLM paper, and PhD students may opt for the clinic project for their experiential learning. Each group for a Sub-clinic project must not exceed ten students, (ideal number would be eight). There is a field supervisor for each sub-clinic project, who may be from faculty or industry. By providing farmers multiple forms of advocacy addressed to five key challenges to their livelihoods, the Clinic’s expected outcomes will be two-fold: first, to engage in measurable levels of activity in each cluster of advocacy activities; and second, through that intensive advocacy, to produce measurable improvements in farmers’ well-being, particularly in vulnerable groups, according to specific measures to be determined.

The Clinic will not only help individual farmers and businesses do better within the structural constraints they face, but it will also help in addressing key structural challenges thereby contributing to create a more conducive ecosystem for women, young farmers, persons with disabilities, settler farmers, MSMEs and other marginalised groups.

The MSME/Agric Justice clinic is therefore a transdisciplinary Hybrid and Collaborative model. It is transdisciplinary because it involves not only law students, but may include students who have backgrounds in other disciplines such as the social sciences, sciences, business, agriculture, administration, etc. This is possible because the clinic includes post-graduate students such as LLM and MA students. While the LLM students have a degree in Law, the MA students do not – rather, they have a degree in some other discipline. In addition, the clinic may involve other faculties within the University of Ghana, such as the Business School and the School of Agriculture. The involvement of other disciplines aims to provide holistic legal, policy and practical resolution to issues that are identified by the clinic.

Furthermore, the Clinic is a hybrid model because it combines features of in-house clinic, externship and street law models. The clinic is made up of lecturers and students at the University of Ghana School of Law (“UGSoL”) and Harvard Law School, (“HLS”), and therefore housed within the University of Ghana and Harvard Law Schools. It may also collaborate with other entities in Ghana that have similar objectives. For example, in 2023, the Clinic collaborated with the Statutory Regulator for the MSMEs sector, that is, the Ghana Enterprises Agency.⁸ This makes it collaborative.

In post-clinic feedback reports, all student participants in the Clinic reported profound impact in various ways. The vast majority of the students (over 90%)  reported that the Clinic provided them with insight into real legal problems requiring real legal services in a way that they had not previously considered, while all the students, (100%) reported that the clinic exposed them to how some of the laws impact on people and livelihoods particularly among vulnerable populations, and the challenges that these groups face in accessing justice. The highlight of this model for many students was that for the first time, they were awarded academic credit commensurate with their efforts in the clinic and had areas for further research for dissertations and seminar paper presentations, in addition to the quality of their experiences during the clinic.

Another benefit that the clinic afforded students was the opportunity to be innovative, and to identity other issues that may not be legal issues but that impact on the legal issues and the legal solutions – the transdisciplinary nature of the Clinic means that the non-law students with backgrounds in business, science and agriculture are able to identify non-legal issues that may bother on cultural, business models or other such issues. For example, many of the students, (about 70%) indicated that they previously had little or no knowledge in field research analysis, but learned more about these not only from interdisciplinary faculty, but also from some of their colleague clinic student participants some of whom had expansive social science backgrounds and other backgrounds in scientific research, (from amongst the LLM and MA in Law student participants).

Furthermore, students experienced responsibility for their decisions in the cases, albeit under close supervised, expert guidance and direction from professors and relevant experts. Overall, students greatly appreciated that the model gave them an opportunity to apply the doctrinal knowledge that they had acquired, sharpen various skills in team building, teamwork and international collaboration and skills in interdisciplinary research.  For example, the field work involved students interacting with farmers, organized labor and high-profile government institutions. Students also made presentations of their findings to university community, students’ bodies and industry. In the process, they practiced scheduling meetings and securing meetings with high profile entities and enhanced their interviewing, teamwork, collaboration, research, flexibility, presentation and advocacy skills. One of the participants commented that:

“This has impacted me in various ways. First, it was difficult to see the issues that confront farmers in the community that we did the field work in – the challenges of access to financing and land tenure, the fears that the aging farmers expressed that their children do not want to pursue farming and so there was the risks that there will be less farmers in the future. I also learned for the first time how to do data analysis from my colleagues – it was the first time I heard “regression analysis of data which was applied by a student in my group” (a student participant in the MSMEs/Agric Justice Clinic)

For faculty, this provided an alternative model as a pedagogical tool for legal education for academic credit, without having to worry about the aspects of the Legal Profession Act that prohibits unlicensed persons from representing clients as lawyers.⁹ This is because some of the students for the post-graduate course are licensed lawyers and may therefore appear in court to lead their colleagues who are yet to be duly licensed.

CHALLENGES, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

The MSME/Agricultural Justice clinic model is capital intensive, as students are housed at one location during the field intensive aspect of the clinic. The logistics involved in this aspect of the clinic can thus be considerable. In addition, the Clinic requires not only full-time clinicians across disciplines such as law, business, agriculture, social sciences and industry, it may also require field supervisors and community entry collaborators. It therefore raises critical issues of funding. One of the countries that offers learnings on addressing the challenge of funding, particularly for developing countries is South Africa, (Maisel, P., 2006).

South Africa has a long history of clinical legal education, with the first law school clinic reported to have been established during the apartheid era, (Maisel, P., 2006). Over this long history, clinicians in South Africa have had to adapt and find creative ways of addressing various challenges that faced clinical legal education, including issues of funding. In the case of addressing the funding challenge, clinicians in South African pioneered several innovative ways that either stretched scarce resources or raised critical funding to accommodate expansion of clinical legal education.  For example, Law clinics in South Africa reduced their overheads by hiring new law graduates to supervise students in their capacity as candidate attorneys at reduced salaries. This achieved two desired results: it reduced personnel expenses for the clinic, thereby allowing the clinic to expand, and at the same time, it helped these new graduates to complete their professional training requirements for articles of clerkship. Another way that South African clinicians reduced their overheads was by using final year and masters-level law students to tutor first years who are taking legal skills courses.  While such courses may not be directly part of the clinic experience, they nonetheless provided crucial preparation for students who later work in clinics and therefore impacted on the overall success of the clinic, (Maisel, P., 2006).

Although reducing overheads is critical, so is raising additional revenue. One way of raising revenue to support clinical legal education is through grants and donations from private, public, government and international donors. In this light, transparent and accountable Trusts or Schemes may be established to receive such funding for clinical legal education, (Maisel, P., 2006).

It has also been suggested that governments be required to fund clinical legal education. In his study “Clinical legal education in Nigeria: Developments and Challenges”, Oke-Samuel, O., 2008, observed that 69.5 percent of his study’s respondents stated that there is a need for government to provide funds for the enhancement and effectiveness of clinical legal education in Nigeria. In fact, his study underscores the proposition that all necessary aid that is needed to equip clinical legal education must be provided by the government and concerned stakeholders in the Justice system. This, he argues, will contribute to equipping legal clinics with the right tools needed in the clinic, intensify clinical legal education and expand access to justice. While the author herein agrees with this view, it is also undeniable that governments in developing countries such as Ghana have many competing developmental needs but limited corresponding budgets. The ability of governments in developing countries like Ghana to fully and solely fund legal clinics may thus be an unattainable aspiration in the short to medium term.  In view of this unpleasant reality, it might not be feasible for the Ghanaian government to fully and solely fund clinical legal education, at least not in the short term. It is in this vein that I recommend the inclusion in the tuition fees of academic institutions a portion for clinical legal education. The fee portion will provide a constant source of funding for clinical legal education as a pedagogical tool for legal education. In addition to this, faculties may seek external funding from like-minded organization to complement the tuition fees. Finally, faculties may set up dedicated funds for donations from willing persons towards clinical legal education. This will be effective in ensuring sustainability for a transformative curriculum such as clinical legal education.

CONCLUSION

Clinical legal education has gained global recognition for its sheer impact as a pedagogical tool for legal education, its effectiveness in bridging the gap between the law on the books and the law in practice and its potential for building critical skills in law students needed for legal practice. It presents students not only with unique opportunities to anticipate and engage in the full spectrum of the skills, ethics, and values of the practicing legal professional, [Wilson, Richard J, 2017], but it also equips them to reflect more deeply about the role of the law and the legal profession in society, the quality of justice delivery in the societies, issues surrounding access to justice and potential areas requiring law reform or new perspectives. The MSME/Agric Justice Model provides students, faculties and communities opportunities to not only make learning real but also make rights real and make institutions responsive to rights.

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1. [2013] DLSC2703
2. [2016] DLSC5618
3. The Education Regulatory Bodies Act, 2020 (Act 1023), s.3.
4. The Ghana School of Law has with several campuses in Accra and Kumasi.
5. The Republic vs. High Court (Fast Track Div.) Accra Exparte: Justin Pwavra Teriwajah and Henry Nuertey Korboe [2013] DLSC2703
6. https://sikamantimes.com/galamsey-fight-ugsol-students-urge-declaration-of-state-of emergency/#google_vignette).
7. The Republic vs. High Court (Fast Track Div.) Accra Exparte: Justin Pwavra Teriwajah and Henry Nuertey Korboe [2013] DLSC2703.
8. The Ghana Enterprises Agency is established pursuant to the Ghana Enterprises Agency Act, 2020 (Act 1043) to: promote and develop micro, small and medium enterprises in Ghana; oversee and coordinate the promotion and development of micro, small and medium enterprises; and encourage the participation of micro, small and medium enterprises in industrial transformation through innovation and technology transfer among others.
9. The Legal Profession Act, 1960, (Act 38), s. 8.